Preface for Teachers

Each year in the Department of English at Newcastle University, I am given eleven 50‐minute lecture slots in which to introduce English phonetics and phonology to around a hundred students in the first semester of their first year on a variety of different undergraduate degree programmes, including English language and liter‐ ature, linguistics, English language, modern languages, music, history and many others. Also included in the student body are European exchange undergraduates and students taking applied linguistics postgraduate degrees in media technology and in linguistics for teachers of English as a second language.

Given the range of degree types, this is a daunting task, made even more difficult by the fact that a substantial minority of the students do not have English as their first language. In a typical year, the student cohort will include speakers of Arabic, French, Spanish, German, Greek, Japanese, Korean, Mandarin or Cantonese Chinese, and Thai. Many of the non‐native speakers will have been taught RP; others will have been taught General American. Amongst the native speakers of English, very few of the students will be speakers of RP, so that the non‐native speakers are more likely to speak RP than the native speakers.

The vast majority of the student body will take their study of English phonetics and phonology no further, and the one factor which the majority of this diverse band of students shares is that they have no previous knowledge of phonetics or phonology; the course must therefore be ab initio.

One faces a dilemma in teaching such a course: on the one hand, one wants to cater to the small minority who will go on to study phonology at a more advanced level. On the other hand, one wants to introduce the subject without overwhelm‐ ing the students with a mass of bewildering descriptive detail and an avalanche of seemingly arcane theoretical constructs. It is a moot point whether this dilemma can be resolved. However, this textbook was written as an attempt at a solution.

It is arguable that textbooks are harder to write than monographs, and that the more elementary the textbook, the harder it is to write: one can barely write a line without being aware of one’s often questionable assumptions, and one has always to resist the temptation to question them in the body of the text. One continually has the sense of one’s peers looking over one’s shoulder and guffawing at the absurd oversimplifications which one is knowingly committing to print. But it has to be done: students have to learn to walk before they can learn to run; they also have to learn to crawl before they can learn to walk.

Writing and using textbooks is an empirical matter: it is very often immediately apparent when an exercise, chapter or book is simply not working, for a given body of students. Almost all of the textbooks which I have used on the first‐year Newcastle course described here have proved to be unsuitable for this type of student cohort in one way or another; mostly, they have contained far too much detail. I have therefore set out to write a very short, very simple coursebook which deliberately ignores a great many descriptive/theoretical complexities.

My aim has not been to introduce students to phonological theory; rather, I have sought to introduce some of the bare essentials of English phonetics and phonology in a manner that is as theory‐neutral as possible. This is fundamentally problematic, of course, since there is no such thing as theory‐neutral description. I have therefore decided to adopt various theoretical/descriptive views, such as the tongue‐arch/cardinal vowel approach to articulatory description, the phonemic approach to segmental phonology, the trochaic approach to English foot structure, and so on, on the purely pragmatic basis of what I have found to be easiest to convey to the students.

I have ignored acoustic phonetics for the very simple reason that our depart‐ ment lacks a phonetics lab, and I have not included distinctive features, since the mere sight of arrays of features marked with ‘+’ and ‘−’ symbols seems to render large numbers of my first‐year students dizzy (particularly those majoring in English literature). I have also excluded feature geometry, the mora, under‐specification and a great many other theoretical /descriptive notions, in an attempt to pare the subject down to a bare minimum of these.

The first four chapters are deliberately very short indeed, and contain only the most elementary introduction to articulatory phonetics. My aim there is to offer the student a gentle introduction to the course. I have spread the introduction of the phonemic principle over two chapters, since, in my experience, students find their first encounter with these ideas something of a quantum leap. The chapters on word stress, rhythm, connected speech phenomena and accent variation contain a very stripped‐down, minimal, account of those subjects; I hope that there is enough there to act as a foundation for those students who wish to study these matters in more depth. In the chapter on syllable structure, I have been a little more ambitious in introducing analytical complexity, on the assumption that syllable structure is something that beginning students seem to be able to get the hang of more easily than, say, rhythm or intonation.

I believe that one of the most important duties of a university teacher is to induce in the student a sense of critical awareness, a grasp of argumentation and the role of evidence. On the other hand, one has to be very wary of introducing students at the most elementary stage to the idea of competing analyses: they find it difficult enough to get the hang of one sort of analysis, without being asked to assess the merits and demerits of competing analyses (even at the post‐elementary stage, most undergraduates are very resistant to the idea of critically comparing different analyses). I have tried to overcome this dilemma by introducing competing analyses and assumptions at one or two points, while consciously ignoring them elsewhere. The exercises are meant to be discussed at weekly seminar/tutorial meetings; my experience is that, if phonetics/phonology students are not made to do exercises, they easily come to believe that they have grasped the subject when in fact they have not. It is my hope that students who have completed this course would find it possible to tackle more advanced textbook treatments of these topics, such as those given by Giegerich (1992) and Spencer (1996). Whether that hope is fulfilled is, of course, very much an empirical matter.

Preface for Students

This is an elementary introduction to English phonetics and phonology, designed for those who have no previous knowledge whatsoever of the subject. It begins with a very elementary introduction to articulatory phonetics, and then proceeds to introduce the student to a very simplified account of some of the main aspects of the phonological structure of present‐day English.

It is arguable that there are two main questions one might ask in studying the English language: what is it about English that makes it a language (as opposed to, say, a non‐human communication system), and what is it about English that makes it English (as opposed to, say, French or Korean)? This book attempts to provide the beginnings of an answer to both of those questions, with respect to one aspect of English: its phonology.

Thus, although the subject matter of this book is English, there is reference to the phonology of other languages at several points, often in contrastive exercises which are designed to bring out one or more differences between English and another language. These contrastive exercises are included because native speakers of English, who often have little or no detailed knowledge of other languages, tend to assume that the phonology of English is the way it is as a matter of natural fact, a matter of necessity. For many such speakers, it will seem somehow natural, for instance, that the presence of the sound [f] as opposed to [v] functions to signal a difference in meaning (as in fan vs van). To the English speaker, [f] and [v] will therefore seem easily distinguishable, and that too will appear to be a natural fact. But the fact that these sounds have that function in English is a conventional, not a necessary or natural fact: English need not have been that way, and may not always be that way. Just as one can gain a new perspective on one’s own culture by learning about other cultures, so one can gain a fresh perspective on one’s native language by learning a little about other languages. One can also, in learning about other cultures, gain some sense of what human cultures are like. Similarly, one can begin to get a sense of what human language phonologies are like by learning in what respects they resemble each other. Those points of resemblance concern general organizational properties of human language phonologies, such as the phonemic principle and the principles of syllable structure.

Reading a textbook on linguistic analysis is not like reading a novel. It is vital that the student complete the exercises at the end of each chapter before proceeding to the next chapter: they are designed to get the student to apply the ideas introduced in the chapter. The reader will not have properly grasped the ideas contained in this, or any other, textbook on phonology by simply sitting back in an armchair and reading the text, even if the student is under the impression of having understood the ideas. Vast numbers of students who have attempted to master linguistic analysis without actually doing it have ended up with disastrous exam results: no one ever became any good at linguistic analysis without actually doing it.

Like most linguistics textbooks, this book is cumulative in nature: what has been introduced in earlier chapters is presupposed in later chapters. It is fatal, therefore, to let several weeks go by without doing the reading and the exercises, in the hope of catching up later: the result is very likely to be that you will simply find yourself out of your depth, even though this is an elementary textbook. It is simply not possible to dip in and out of a linguistic analysis textbook, no matter how basic, in the way that one might dip in and out of a dictionary or an encyclopedia.

This book is designed to cater for students who, in all probability, will not pursue their studies in English phonetics and phonology any further. However, students who will be proceeding to a more advanced level should be able to tackle more advanced textbook treatments of these topics, such as those given by Giegerich and by Spencer (see Suggested Further Reading at the end of the book). Those students should also find it easier to tackle one of the many introductions to general phonological theory which are not focused on English (again, see Suggested Further Reading). In order to prepare such students for more advanced study, I have introduced, at some points, an indication of some of the difficulties with some of the assumptions made in this textbook, or a brief discussion of competing analyses. Although this textbook merely scratches the surface of the subject matter, I hope that there is enough here to make the subject of phonology seem intriguing to the student who intends to pursue his or her studies.

It is my hope that this book will be of some use to teachers of English as a for‐ eign language, although it is not designed specifically for such readers. I am always surprised to discover how little in the way of knowledge of English phonetics and phonology such teachers often have. I have no experience of such teaching, and while I make no suggestions as to how the notions introduced in this book might be put to use in the TEFL classroom, I find it hard to believe that a knowledge of the basics of English phonetics and phonology could fail to be useful to the TEFL teacher in some way, even if only as background knowledge which extends the teacher’s knowledge of English. I also hope that some of the contrastive exercises might help suggest ways in which one’s native language phonology can interfere with one’s attempt to acquire English as a second language.

The first edition of this book was written while I was teaching in an English university. Since then, I have moved to the English department at Montpellier University, in France. While I always had non‐native speakers of English in my classes at Newcastle University, most of my students were native speakers of English; now, the vast majority of my students are not native speakers of English. Most are French, but there are also Spanish, Portuguese, Greek, German, Dutch, Polish, Russian and Bulgarian students, among others. The book has changed as a result: it is more orientated towards learners of English as a foreign language, but it is still useful for native speakers, I believe.

The main changes to the text concern the later chapters: Chapters 8, 9 and 10 have been entirely rewritten, and there is a new chapter (Chapter 11) on the relationship between spelling and pronunciation, known as grapho‐phonemics. Teachers whose students are native speakers of English may choose to skip this chapter, but it could prove useful for students who wish to go on to teach English as a foreign language. I have expanded the appendix (renamed as Chapter 13) to cover additional varieties of English. There are now sound files which accompany exercises, the treatment of intonation, and the description of some of the varieties of English given here: these are marked in the margins with a headphones symbol.

I have insisted on retaining practice at phonetic transcription, for two reasons. Firstly, I believe that it reinforces the distinction between phonetic transcription, based on listening to speech sounds, and phonological analysis, in which phonemes (as conceived of here) are not speech sounds, and cannot be heard. Secondly, I hope that some readers of this book will go on to engage in the empirical study of varieties of English, which typically involves both listening carefully to, and phonetically transcribing, recordings of speakers of various accents, and also engaging with theoretical issues in the analysis of those accents. The phonetic transcription exercises are now based on audio recordings.

The book is not intended as an introduction to phonological theory; some books of that sort are listed in the Suggested Further Reading. Inevitably, I have had to draw on notions proposed in various theoretical frameworks. Any proposed distinction between theory and description is fraught with difficulties: there can be no description without theoretical assumptions, as the philosopher of science Karl Popper pointed out. However, in my view, some kind of distinction between theory and description must be upheld. My aims here are primarily descriptive.

The third edition of this book contains two new chapters, on first‐language (L1) and second‐language (L2) acquisition of English phonetics and phonology.

The L1 chapter is based on parts of a Child Language course which I taught for 18 years in the English Department at the Université Montpellier III in France.

The L2 chapter is based on my experience in practical laboratory classes at the same university, in which my students were predominantly French, but which also contained native speakers of Arabic, Danish, German, Greek, Italian and Spanish. There is a bias towards discussion of native speakers of French in this chapter, for obvious reasons, but the general issues are the same for all non‐native speakers of English.

Any queries and/or corrections can be sent to: philcarrb@yahoo.com.

Acknowledgements, First Edition

I am grateful to several cohorts of students in the Department of English Literary and Linguistic Studies at Newcastle University whose feedback has been valuable. I am also indebted to Patrick Honeybone, Maria Maza, Irenie Rowley and Charles Prescott, who acted as tutors to my students, and whose comments on several drafts have proved most helpful. Thanks too to my colleague Karen Corrigan, who com‐ mented on an early draft. Many years ago, in a small mud house on an island on the White Nile, I introduced James Dickins to the elements of phonetic description. He has kindly reciprocated by supplying me with the Arabic data on p. 40, for which I thank him. I also owe a debt of gratitude to the seven anonymous reviewers of my original proposal for their comments, and to Steve Smith, Mary Riso and Beth Remmes at Blackwell for their patience and encouragement. They may well be surprised that it took so long to write such a short book; I can, however, console myself with the fact that I do not have to offer the (perhaps apocryphal) apology:

‘I am sorry this book is so long; I did not have the time to write a shorter one.’ Finally, many thanks to Blackwell’s reader, Andrew Spencer, whose intelligent, informed and insightful comments on the pre‐final draft were immensely helpful. He is not, of course, responsible for any remaining inadequacies in the text.

Acknowledgements, Second Edition

I am grateful to Jacques Durand and Anne Przewozny, fellow co‐directors of the PAC project (La Phonologie de l’anglais contemporain), and to Raphaël Dommange for permission to use some of their PAC recordings.

Thanks to my ex‐Masters student Cécile Montforte for allowing me to use some of her PAC data from her dissertation ‘Accent change and language attitudes in Scotland: a socio‐linguistic investigation of Glasgow middle‐class speakers’ (Université Montpellier II, 2011).

I am grateful to Francis Nolan, professor of phonetics at Cambridge University and principal investigator of the IViE project (Intonational Variation in English), for permission to use, for educational purposes, two sound files from the IViE cor‐ pus, collected as part of the ESRC project R000237145 ‘English Intonation in the British Isles’.

Many thanks to my friend and colleague Nick Myers, of the Université Paul Valéry here in Montpellier, to Inès Brulard and to my Masters student Alison Gilbreath for taking the time and trouble to record exercise material for me.

I thank two anonymous readers of the draft chapters for their detailed comments. I thank Danielle Descoteaux and Julia Kirk at Wiley‐Blackwell for their patience and encouragement. I also thank Colleen Fitzgerald for permission to use the written passage which she constructed for the recordings of Texan English, my copy‐editor Fiona Sewell for her help with the draft text and Leah Morin for her help with the proofs.

Acknowledgements, Third Edition

I thank Tanya McMullin, Manish Luthra, Navami Rajunath and Mohan Jayachandran at Wiley‐Blackwell for their help and encouragement. Thanks to Patrick Honeybone at Edinburgh University for setting up recording sessions of French‐speaking students there. Thanks too to Mike Boyd, also of Edinburgh University, for technical assistance (Boydie: Nikki has a pint behind the bar for you at The Bridge Inn!).

These sound files accompany exercises, the treatment of intonation, and the description of some of the varieties of English given here. They are marked in the margins with a headphones symbol (as shown), and are available at: www.wiley.com/go/carrphonetics

Track 1.1: Exercise 4

Track 1.2: Exercise 5

Track 1.3: Exercise 6

Track 2.1: Exercise 1

Track 2.2: Exercise 2

Track 2.3: Exercise 3

Track 3.1: Exercise 3

Track 4.1: Exercise 3

Track 5.1: Exercise 4

Track 6.1: Marry Merry Mary (vowel neutralization in GA)

Track 6.2: Exercise 3

Track 7.1: Exercise 4

Track 8.1: Exercise 1

Track 8.2: Exercise 2

Track 8.3: Exercise 3

Track 8.4: Exercise 4

Track 8.5: Exercise 5

Track 8.6: Exercise 6

Track 9.1: Exercise 2

Track 9.2: Exercise 3

Track 9.3: Exercise 4

Track 10.1: Example (1) (falling tone)

Track 10.2: Example (2) (rising tone)

Track 10.3: Example (3) (rise‐fall)

Track 10.4: Example (4) (fall‐rise)

Track 10.5: Example (5) (last lexical item)

Track 10.6: Example (6) (last lexical item)

Track 10.7: Example (7) (last lexical item)

Track 10.8: Example (8) (contrastive intonation)

Track 10.9: Example (9) (last lexical item)

Track 10.10: Example (10) (contrastive intonation)

Track 10.11: Example (11) (contrastive intonation)

Track 10.12: Example (13) (given information)

Track 10.13: Example (14) (given information)

Track 10.14: Example (15) (synonyms and given information)

Track 10.15: Example (16) (tonic placement and presupposition)

Track 10.16: Example (17) (tonic placement and given information)

Track 10.17: Example (18) (final temporal adverbials)

Track 10.18: Example (19) (final temporal adverbials and contrastive intonation)

Track 10.19: Example (20) (fronted temporal adverbials)

Track 10.20: Example (21) (event sentences)

Track 10.21: Example (22) (no one, nothing, nowhere, nobody)

Track 10.22: Example (23) (someone, something, somewhere, somebody)

Track 10.23: Example (24) (pro‐forms)

Track 10.24: Examples (25), (26), (27) (clefting and focus)

Track 10.25: Example (28) (deixis)

Track 10.26: Example (29) (deixis)

Track 10.27: Example (30) (deixis and contrast)

Track 10.28: Examples (31), (32) (non‐restrictive and restrictive relative clauses)

Track 10.29: Example (33) (noun phrases in apposition)

Track 10.30: Example (34) (other parentheicals)

Track 10.31: Example (35) (co‐ordinated constituents)

Track 10.32: Example (36) (short co‐ordinated constituents)

Track 10.33: Example (37) (lexicalized co‐ordination)

Track 10.34: Example (38) (more lexicalized co‐ordination)

Track 10.35: Example (39) (list intonation)

Track 10.36: Examples (40), (41) (subordinate clauses)

Track 10.37: Example (42) (sentence adverbials)

Track 10.38: Example (43) (sentence adverbials)

Track 10.39: Example (44) (pseudo‐clefts)

Track 10.40: Example (45) (the is … is that construction)

Track 10.41: Example (46) (reporting clauses)

Track 10.42: Example (47) (reporting clauses)

Track 10.43: Example (48) (subject noun phrases)

Track 10.44: Examples (49), (50) (tag questions)

Track 10.45: Example (51) (tag questions)

Track 10.46: Example (52) (tag questions)

Track 10.47: Example (53) (transitive phrasal verbs)

Track 10.48: Example (54) (intransitive phrasal verbs)

Track 10.49: Example (55) (intransitive phrasal verbs and event sentences)

Track 10.50: Examples (56), (57) (degree adverbials)

Track 10.51: Example (58) (so as a degree adverb)

Track 10.52: Example (59) (so as verb phrase adverbial)

Track 10.53: Example (60) (WH questions)

Track 10.54: Example (61) (echoic WH questions)

Track 10.55: Examples (62), (63) (declaratives as questions)

Track 10.56: Example (64) (vocatives)

Track 10.57: Example (65) (final non‐vocative vs final vocative)

Track 10.58: Example (66) (IP boundaries and other meaning differences)

Track 10.59: Exercise 3

Track 10.60: Exercise 4

Track 10.61: Exercise 5

Track 10.62: Exercise 7

Track 10.63: Exercise 8

Track 11.1: Exercise 1

Track 11.2: Exercise 2

Track 11.3: Exercise 3

Track 11.4: Exercise 4

Track 12.1: Exercise 1

Track 12.2: Exercise 1

Track 12.3: Exercise 1

Track 13.4: Exercise 1

Track 13.5: Exercise 2

Track 13.6: Exercise 3

Track 13.7: Exercise 4

Track 13.8: Exercise 5

Track 13.9: Exercise 6

Track 13.10: Exercise 7 (RP)

Track 13.11: Exercise 7 (GA)

Track 15.1: Exercise 1

Track 15.2: Exercise 2

This book is accompanied by a companion website to enhance your learning

www.wiley.com/go/carrphonetics 

The website includes:

• Sound files organized by chapter, corresponding with the icons in the text

Scan this QR code to visit the companion website.

1.1 Airstream and Articulation

Speech sounds are made by modifying an airstream. The airstream we will be concerned with in this book involves the passage of air from the lungs out through the oral and nasal cavities (see Figure 1, page 00). There are many points at which that stream of air can be modified, and several ways in which it can be modified (i.e. constricted in some way). The first point at which the flow of air can be modified, as it passes from the lungs, is in the larynx (you can feel the front of this, the Adam’s apple, protruding slightly at the front of your throat; see Figure 1), in which are located the vocal folds (or vocal cords). The vocal folds may lie open, in which case the airstream passes through them unimpeded. Viewed from above, the vocal folds, when they lie open, look like this:

The vocal folds may be brought together so that they are closed, and no air may flow through them from the lungs:

One way in which the outgoing stream of air may be modified is by applying a certain level of constant muscular pressure sufficient to close the vocal folds along their length, but only just; the build‐up of air pressure underneath this closure is sufficient, given the degree of muscular pressure, to force that closure open, but the air pressure then drops, and the muscular pressure causes the folds to close again. The sequence is then repeated, very rapidly, and results in what is called vocal fold vibration. You should be able to feel this vibration if you put your fingers to your larynx and produce the sound which is written as < z > in the word hazy (although you will probably also feel vibration elsewhere in your head). Sounds which are produced with this vocal fold vibration are said to be voiced sounds, whereas sounds produced without such vibration are said to be voiceless.

To transcribe speech sounds, phoneticians use the International Phonetic Alphabet (the IPA: see Figure 2, page 00); the IPA symbol for the sound written < z > in hazy is [z]. You should be able to feel the presence of vibration in [z] if you put your fingers to your larynx and produce [z], then [s] (as in miss), then [z] again: [z] is voiced, whereas [s] is voiceless. This distinction will constitute the first of three descriptive parameters by means of which we will describe a given consonantal speech sound: we will say, for any given consonant, whether it is voiced or voiceless.

1.2 Place of Articulation

We will refer to the points at which the flow of air can be modified as places of articulation. We have just identified the vocal folds as a place of articulation; since the space between the vocal cords is referred to as the glottis, we will refer to sounds produced at this place of articulation as glottal sounds. There are many other places of articulation; we will identify a further seven.

Firstly, sounds in which the airflow is modified by forming a constriction between the lower lip and the upper lip are referred to as bilabial sounds. An example is the first sound in pit.

Secondly, sounds in which there is a constriction between the lower lip and the upper teeth are referred to as labio‐dental sounds. An example is the first sound in fit.

A labio‐dental sound: the first sound in fit

Thirdly, sounds in which there is a constriction between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth are referred to as dental sounds. An example is the first sound in thin.

For the remaining places of articulation, let us distinguish between the tip, the blade of the tongue, the front of the tongue and the back of the tongue (as in Figure 1). Let us also distinguish various points along the upper part of the mouth. We will identify four different areas: the alveolar ridge (the hard, bony ridge behind the teeth; see Figure 1), the hard palate (the hard, bony part of the roof of the mouth; see Figure 1), the palato‐alveolar (or post‐alveolar) region¹ (the area in between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate), and the velum (the soft part at the back of the roof of the mouth, also known as the soft palate; see Figure 1).

Sounds in which there is a constriction between the blade or tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge are called alveolar sounds. An example is the first sound in sin.

Sounds in which there is a constriction between the blade of the tongue and the palato‐alveolar (or post‐alveolar) region are called palato‐alveolar sounds. An example is the first sound in ship.

Sounds in which there is a constriction between the front of the tongue and the hard palate are called palatal sounds. An example is the first sound in yes (although this may be less obvious to you; we will return to this sound below).

Sounds in which there is a constriction between the back of the tongue and the velum are called velar sounds. An example is the first sound in cool.

1.3 Manner of Articulation: Stops, Fricatives and Approximants

We have now identified eight places of articulation: glottal, bilabial, labio‐dental, dental, alveolar, palato‐alveolar, palatal and velar. For any given sound we will say whether it is voiced or voiceless, and what its place of articulation is. But to distinguish between the full range of speech sounds, we will require a third descriptive parameter: manner of articulation. To identify the manner in which a sound is articulated, we will identify three different degrees of constriction (complete closure, close approximation and open approximation), and thus three different categories of consonant: stops, fricatives and approximants.

Exercises

1. Give the appropriate three‐term description for each of the following sounds (e.g. [k]: voiceless velar stop):

   [θ]

   [b]

   [f]

   [ʃ]

   [j]

   [t]

2. Give the appropriate phonetic symbol for each of the following sounds:
   1. a voiced palato‐alveolar fricative
   2. a voiced alveolar stop
   3. a voiced velar stop
   4. a voiced dental fricative
   5. a voiced labio‐dental fricative
3. What phonetic property distinguishes each of the following pairs of sounds (e.g. [p] and [b]: voicing; [s] and [ʃ]: place of articulation; [t] and [s]: manner of articulation)?

   (a) [k] and [g]	(b) [b] and [d]	(c) [d] and [z]
   (d) [z] and [ʒ]	(e) [ʃ] and [ʒ]	(f) [d] and [g]

4. Listen to Track 1.1 at www.wiley.com/go/carrphonetics. Which of the words on the recording begin with a fricative? The words are listed below.

   ship	psychology	veer	round	plot
   philosophy	think	late	xylophone

5. Listen to Track 1.2. Which of the words on the recording end with a fricative? The words are listed below.

   stack	whale	swim	epitaph half	halve	hash
   haze	phase	use	path cuts	pleads

6. Listen to Track 1.3. Which of the words on the recording begin with a stop? The words are listed below.

   philanderer	plasterer	parsimonious	ptarmigan	psyche
   charismatic	cereal carping	kinky	ghoulish	gruelling
   guardian	thick	tickle bin	dreary

7. Describe the position and action of the articulators during the production of the following sounds (e.g. [d]: the blade of the tongue forms a constriction of complete closure with the alveolar ridge; the vocal cords are vibrating):

   [v]

   [θ]

   [k]

   [b]