Cover
List of Contributors
Foreword
Preface
1. References
1 Nondestructive Testing
1. 1.1 Corrosion Damage and NDE
2. 1.2 Corrosion: A Brief Overview
3. 1.3 NDE Methods [1]
4. 1.4 Advances in Nondestructive Evaluation for Corrosion Evaluation and Damage Assessment
5. 1.5 R&D Trends in NDE for Corrosion Detection Technologies
6. 1.6 Quality Assurance/Evaluation Requirements for Corrosion Service
7. 1.7 Case Study: Zircaloy Hydriding
8. 1.8 Conclusion
9. Acknowledgments
10. References
2 Corrosion
1. 2.1 Metallic Corrosion
2. 2.2 Cause of Corrosion
3. 2.3 Electrochemical Nature of Corrosion
4. 2.4 Types of Corrosion
5. 2.5 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
6. 2.6 Evaluation and Monitoring of Various Types of Corrosion by Nondestructive Technique (NDT)
7. Reference
8. Further Reading
3 Nondestructive Evaluation of Corrosion
1. 3.1 Introduction
2. 3.2 Nondestructive Examination: A Perspective
3. 3.3 Factors Determining Selection of NDE Method
4. 3.4 NDE for Monitoring Uniform Corrosion
5. 3.5 Monitoring Pitting Corrosion
6. 3.6 Monitoring Crevice Corrosion
7. 3.7 Monitoring Intergranular Corrosion
8. 3.8 Monitoring Stress Corrosion Cracking
9. 3.9 Advanced NDE Methods for Corrosion Monitoring
10. 3.10 Conclusions
11. References
4 NDE Methods for Monitoring Corrosion and Corrosion‐assisted Cracking
1. 4.1 Introduction
2. 4.2 NDE Methods for Corrosion Detection and Monitoring
3. 4.3 NDE Methods for Detection of Stress Corrosion Cracking
4. 4.4 NDE Methods for Detection of Pitting Corrosion
5. 4.5 NDE Techniques for Monitoring of Corrosion in Piping Systems
6. 4.6 NDE Techniques for Corrosion Detection in Aircraft Structures
7. 4.7 NDE Techniques for Detection of Rebar Corrosion Damage
8. 4.8 Case Studies
9. 4.9 Multi‐NDE and Data Fusion Techniques for Corrosion Monitoring
10. 4.10 Summary
11. References
5 Lock‐in Thermography for the Wide Area Detection of Paint Degradation and Incipient Corrosion
1. 5.1 Introduction
2. 5.2 Lock‐in IR Thermography Background
3. 5.3 Detection of Incipient Corrosion and Paint Degradation
4. 5.4 Infrared Thermography and Paint Degradation
5. 5.5 Conclusion
6. Acknowledgment
7. Disclaimer
8. References
6 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy for Nondestructive Evaluation of Corrosion Processes
1. 6.1 Introduction
2. 6.2 Structure of Electrochemical Interfaces
3. 6.3 Data Analysis
4. 6.4 Estimation of Corrosion Rate
5. 6.5 Evaluation of Organic Coating
6. 6.6 Monitoring Passivity and Oxide Films
7. 6.7 Localized Corrosion
8. 6.8 Atmospheric Corrosion
9. 6.9 Fouling
10. 6.10 Concrete Structure
11. 6.11 Instrumentation and Testing
12. 6.12 Concluding Remarks
13. Acknowledgment
14. References
7 Electrochemical Noise as Nondestructive Evaluation Technique for Understanding and Monitoring Corrosion
1. 7.1 Introduction
2. 7.2 Electrochemical Noise: Definition
3. 7.3 Applications of Electrochemical Noise
4. References
8 Evaluation of Cracking and Spallation of Oxide Scales by Acoustic Emission
1. 8.1 Introduction
2. 8.2 Acoustic Emission
3. 8.3 Research Trends in Use of AE for Oxidation Monitoring
4. 8.4 Conclusions
5. References
9 Nondestructive Testing and Corrosion Monitoring
1. 9.1 Introduction
2. 9.2 Why Should We Monitor Corrosion?
3. 9.3 Corrosion Monitoring and NDT
4. 9.4 Physical Methods of Corrosion Monitoring
5. 9.5 Control of the Environment (Chemical Analytical, Physicochemical, and Microbiological Methods)
6. 9.6 Electrochemical Methods
7. 9.7 CM in the Atmosphere
8. 9.8 NDT and CM of Reinforced Concrete Structures
9. 9.9 Online Real‐time CM
10. 9.10 NDT and CM of Pipelines
11. 9.11 NDT and CM Under Insulation
12. 9.12 Monitoring of Cathodic Protection
13. 9.13 Selecting a CM Method
14. References
Index
End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1
1. Table 1.1 Corrosion types and characteristics.
2. Table 1.2 Corrosion detection technology R&D trend.
3. Table 1.3 As per ASTM A262‐14.
Chapter 2
1. Table 2.1 Galvanic series for the galvanic behavior of different engineering met...
2. Table 2.2 NDT techniques for evaluation of various types of corrosion.
Chapter 3
1. Table 3.1 IGSCC sizing by various methods.
Chapter 4
1. Table 4.1 NDT methods suitable for monitoring different types of corrosion damag...
Chapter 5
1. Table 5.1 IR image area as a function of IR camera distance from the wing.
Chapter 7
1. Table 7.1 Comparison of detection by AE and EN for some corrosion process.
2. Table 7.2 Range of LI for various corrosion processes.
3. Table 7.3 Skewness and kurtosis values for various corrosion processes.
4. Table 7.4 Characteristic charge for the stainless steel in 1 M HCl, with and wit...
Chapter 8
1. Table 8.1 Captured AE parameters of interest.
Chapter 9
1. Table 9.1 Effect of chlorides, sulfates, and pH on corrosion of buried steel pip...
2. Table 9.2 Cathodic protection potentials (volts) depending on soil conditions.
3. Table 9.3 Corrosion rates of carbon steel and zinc (μm yr⁻¹) in atmospheri...
4. Table 9.4 Sensors of atmospheric corrosion, their use, and thickness of the meta...
5. Table 9.5 Electrical resistivity of concrete and possible corrosion.
6. Table 9.6 OCP (mV) of concrete structures determining corrosion conditions.
7. Table 9.7 Comparison of possibilities of CM methods used in the industry.
8. Table 9.8 Comparison of characters of some CM methods used in the industry.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1
1. Figure 1.1 (a) and (b) NDT&E: a historical perspective.
2. Figure 1.2 Aids to visual inspection. (a) Self‐illuminated magnifying glass – 6...
3. Figure 1.3 Pitting corrosion (a) in stainless steel (SS) tanks detected through...
4. Figure 1.7 Schematic sketch of LPT methodology.
5. Figure 1.8 Dye penetrant testing reveals intergranular stress corrosion crack i...
6. Figure 1.9 Magnetic particle testing principle.
7. Figure 1.10 Schematic setup for radiographic inspection.
8. Figure 1.11 Principle of ultrasonic testing.
9. Figure 1.12 Principle of eddy current testing.
10. Figure 1.13 Typical microstructures of AISI type 304 stainless steel: (a) norma...
11. Figure 1.14 Typical attenuation plot for X‐rays and neutrons.
12. Figure 1.15 (a) Photograph of aluminum riveted plate. (b) Neutron radiograph of...
13. Figure 1.16 (a) Photograph of aluminum riveted plate. (b) Neutron radiograph of...
14. Figure 1.17 The computed radiography process.
15. Figure 1.18 Computer‐aided inspection of an insulated pipe by means of the proj...
16. Figure 1.19 Characteristics of AE signals.
17. Figure 1.20 Number of detected AE events versus calculated pit size.
18. Figure 1.21 Schematic diagram of the IR imaging system.
19. Figure 1.22 Plot of phase angle with degree of sensitization (DOS). Note the in...
20. Figure 1.23 Wall thinnings (~20%) detected in zircaloy tube.
21. Figure 1.24 Phase image of steel coupons at a depth of 3 m exposed for (a) 5 mo...
22. Figure 1.25 Phase image of the concrete sample clearly revealing the rebars and...
23. Figure 1.26 Schematic sketch of the photon paths in Compton backscatter testing...
24. Figure 1.27 Radiographic image of (a) normal and (b) corroded mild steel plates...
25. Figure 1.28 Graphical plot comparing the wall thickness loss estimated by gamma...
26. Figure 1.29 Schematic of a typical Indian pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR...
27. Figure 1.30 Optical micrograph of zircaloy‐2 cladding material containing 270 p...
28. Figure 1.31 Powder diffraction diagrams measured for several zircaloy samples. ...
29. Figure 1.32 Investigations of hydride blisters grown on Zr‐2.5Nb pressure tube ...
Chapter 2
1. Figure 2.1 Life cycle of a metal from its formation to corrosion stage in servi...
2. Figure 2.2 Anodic (corrosion) and cathodic (reduction) reaction occurring at th...
3. Figure 2.3 Autocatalytic nature of pitting, with rapid dissolution of metal tak...
4. Figure 2.4 Metal within the crevice dissolves as anode, while reduction takes p...
5. Figure 2.5 Chromium‐rich carbide formations along grain boundary leading to Cr‐...
6. Figure 2.6 Time–temperature diagram showing formation of heat‐affected zone (HA...
7. Figure 2.7 (a) Initiation of SCC and corrosion fatigue cracks at pits, (b) high...
8. Figure 2.8 SEM fractograph of a caustic SCC of mild steel, showing a transition...
Chapter 3
1. Figure 3.1 (a, b) Principle of thickness measurement by ultrasonic thickness ga...
2. Figure 3.2 Sketch of (a) delay line and (b) dual crystal transducer.
3. Figure 3.3 Ultrasonic corrosion map showing C‐scan, B‐scan, and A‐scan.
4. Figure 3.4 Detection of pit by normal beam ultrasonic test.
5. Figure 3.5 Pitting corrosion detection using eddy current test.
6. Figure 3.6 (a) Reference standard for eddy current examination of heat exchange...
7. Figure 3.7 Internal rotary inspection system for tube inspection.
8. Figure 3.8 Ultrasonic imaging for crevice corrosion detection.
9. Figure 3.9 Variation of velocity with depth of IGC attack.
10. Figure 3.10 Variation of sound attenuation with depth of IGC attack.
11. Figure 3.11 Ultrasonic velocity ratio measurement for IGC detection.
12. Figure 3.12 Variation of velocity ratio with depth of IGC attack.
13. Figure 3.13 Variation of impedance with depth of intergranular attack.
14. Figure 3.14 Angle beam ultrasonic technique for detection of SCC.
15. Figure 3.15 Tip‐diffraction technique for depth sizing of SCC.
16. Figure 3.16 Remote field eddy current testing.
Chapter 4
1. Figure 4.1 Phase angle variation with seawater exposure time for three types of...
2. Figure 4.2 Phased array ultrasonic testing of a storage tank.
3. Figure 4.3 Principle of eddy current pulsed thermography.
4. Figure 4.4 Setup for nonlinear ultrasonic measurements.
5. Figure 4.5 Eddy current signal of subsurface notches of width at 1 mm, length a...
6. Figure 4.6 Eddy current probe for inspection of steam generator tubes.
7. Figure 4.7 GMR array sensor‐based MFL technique for testing of water wall tubes...
Chapter 5
1. Figure 5.1 Basic lock‐in thermography theory.
2. Figure 5.2 Schematic diagram of the lock‐in system.
3. Figure 5.3 The P‐3C wing before cutup at DSTO.
4. Figure 5.4 Section of P‐3C wing used in the tests showing (a) dimensions and (b...
5. Figure 5.5 Photo of the P‐3C wing specimen taken during IR thermographic tests.
6. Figure 5.6 Location 1. (a) Digital camera image. (b) IR image at 0.2 Hz.
7. Figure 5.7 Close‐up of location 1. (a) Digital camera image. (b) IR image at 0....
8. Figure 5.8 Location 3. (a) Digital camera image. (b) IR image at 5 Hz.
9. Figure 5.9 Close‐up of location 3. (a) Digital camera image. (b) IR image at 5 ...
10. Figure 5.10 IR images of location 3 at various lock‐in frequencies. (a) 5 Hz, (...
11. Figure 5.11 Close‐up of the second harmonic.
12. Figure 5.12 Location 4 with individual areas as denoted in the text. (a) Digita...
13. Figure 5.13 First harmonic phase image and the amplitude and phase images assoc...
14. Figure 5.14 Effect of moving camera away from the test specimen, where the IR c...
15. Figure 5.15 Effect of lock‐in frequency on IR phase image for location 10 toget...
16. Figure 5.16 Digital camera photos showing the area and IR images taken at locat...
17. Figure 5.17 (a) Digital camera photos showing the area of interest and (b) IR i...
18. Figure 5.18 Closeup images of location 14. (a) Digital camera image. (b) IR cam...
19. Figure 5.19 Location 16 containing paint blistering. (a) Digital camera image. ...
20. Figure 5.20 Closeup images of the blistered paint section. (a) Digital camera i...
21. Figure 5.21 Detail of intergranular corrosion on the RH Wing Upper Panel #07 vi...
22. Figure 5.22 Exterior (a) and interior (b) views of RHW#07 Upper Wing Panel (P/N...
23. Figure 5.23 A photograph of RHW#07 with black spray paint on the lap joint regi...
24. Figure 5.24 Location 2 of RHW Upper Panel #07 at 0.5 Hz with six lamps. (a) Dig...
25. Figure 5.25 Location 3 on RHW Upper Panel #07 with six lamps. (a) Digital camer...
26. Figure 5.26 Location 4 on RHW Upper Panel #07 with six lamps. (a) Digital camer...
27. Figure 5.27 The exterior (left photo) and interior (right photo) surfaces of RH...
28. Figure 5.28 Location 1 on RHW Upper Panel #08 at 0.5 Hz with six lamps. (a) Dig...
29. Figure 5.29 Location 2 on RHW Upper Panel #08 at 0.5 Hz with six lamps. (a) Dig...
30. Figure 5.30 Location 3 on RHW Upper Panel #08 at 0.5 Hz with six lamps. (a) Dig...
31. Figure 5.32 Location 5 on RHW Upper Panel #08 at 0.5 Hz with six lamps. (a) Dig...
32. Figure 5.33 The exterior (left) and interior (right) surfaces of LHW Upper Wing...
33. Figure 5.34 Location 1 on LHW Upper Panel #08 at 0.5 Hz with six lamps. (a) Dig...
34. Figure 5.35 Location 2 on LHW Upper Panel #08 at 0.5 Hz with six lamps. (a) Dig...
35. Figure 5.36 Location 3 on LHW Upper Panel #08 at 0.5 Hz with six lamps. (a) Dig...
36. Figure 5.37 Location 4 on LHW Upper Panel #08 at 0.5 Hz with six lamps. (a) Dig...
37. Figure 5.38 Location 5 on LHW Upper Panel #08 at 0.5 Hz with six lamps. (a) Dig...
38. Figure 5.39 The exterior (left) and interior (right) surfaces of RHW Upper Wing...
39. Figure 5.40 Location 1 on RHW Upper Panel #09 at 0.5 Hz with six lamps. (a) Dig...
40. Figure 5.41 Location 2 on RHW Upper Panel #09 at 0.5 Hz with six lamps. (a) Dig...
Chapter 6
1. Figure 6.1 (a) Schematic of electrochemical interface showing charge separation...
2. Figure 6.2 (a) Schematic of electrochemical interface showing metal covered wit...
3. Figure 6.3 Variation in pore resistance with time of exposure to salt spray for...
4. Figure 6.4 Volume fraction of water absorbed by different coatings.
5. Figure 6.5 A schematic of capacitance logarithm, ln(C), and impedance phase ang...
6. Figure 6.6 Variation of break‐point frequency with exposure time to salt spray ...
7. Figure 6.7 (a) A physical model for environmental/conducting coating/AZ31 magne...
8. Figure 6.8 (a) Bode plots of (a‐i) untreated, (a‐ii) 380 °C, and (a‐iii) 500 °C...
9. Figure 6.9 Dependence of N_D on pH and alloy composition: Alloy 1(0.070C–18.59Cr...
10. Figure 6.10 (a) Equivalent circuit employed to evaluate the coating (θ and...
11. Figure 6.11 Impedance curves of samples immersed in various salt solutions. (a)...
12. Figure 6.12 Cross‐sectional images of coatings obtained using (a) silicate and ...
13. Figure 6.13 Model for the impedance of the pitting process on Al‐based material...
14. Figure 6.14 Time dependence of R_p and R_p/F (a), and C_t [=C_p(1 − F) + FC_pit], (b...
15. Figure 6.15 Typical feature of impedance diagram obtained for 2024T351 and 6013...
16. Figure 6.16 Evolution of (a) the electrode potential, (b) the low and high freq...
17. Figure 6.17 Crack initiation and propagation is related to the evolution in pha...
18. Figure 6.18 (a) Schematic of the prototype atmospheric corrosion probe used for...
19. Figure 6.19 The design of monitoring electrode: (a) schematic of assembly metho...
20. Figure 6.20 Impedance measured at a potential where oxygen reduction was very l...
21. Figure 6.21 Time dependence of E_corr (a) and R_p and R_pit (b) for Al 2024 expose...
22. Figure 6.22 Sample potential and impedance trends for ECR.
Chapter 7
1. Figure 7.1 General scheme of fast wavelet transform (FWT) algorithm.
2. Figure 7.2 EN time record for (a) passivation of 304L SS in 0.1% NaOH and (b) u...
3. Figure 7.3 (a) Metastable pitting transient of 304L SS on chloride addition to ...
4. Figure 7.4 EDP of current noise after (a) 1 h of immersion and (b) 25 h of imme...
5. Figure 7.5 Typical EN time record during crevice corrosion.
6. Figure 7.6 EN time record during crevice corrosion of 304L SS in 0.05 M FeCl₃. ...
7. Figure 7.7 R_n–time plot obtained for the immersion of 304L SS in 0.05 M.
8. Figure 7.8 Current noise during propagation of SCC, 32 h after exposure of 316 ...
9. Figure 7.9 Current noise from the stressed C‐ring specimen in 40 wt% NaOH solut...
10. Figure 7.10 Potential and current noise–time records for (a) leaded caustic sol...
11. Figure 7.11 Plot of ln{ln[1/(1 − F(t_n))]} vs. ln t_n.
12. Figure 7.12 EN time record after 8 days of immersion in (a) sterile and (b) mic...
13. Figure 7.13 (a) Frequency of events (F_n) and charge (q) as a function of time f...
14. Figure 7.14 EN time record (with and without inhibitor) during (a) initial stag...
15. Figure 7.15 Potential noise–time plot for EN sensor coated with (A) phenol‐form...
16. Figure 7.16 Potential noise spectra under simulated marine atmospheric environm...
17. Figure 7.17 Current PSD plots for polyurethane film‐coated cold‐rolled steel af...
18. Figure 7.18 R_n–time plots for polyurethane‐coated cold‐rolled steel in 0.5 M Na...
19. Figure 7.19 (a) EN time record and (b) SEM micrograph of wear scar on TiN‐coate...
20. Figure 7.20 Multi‐element sandwich type of sensor that monitors the corrosion o...
21. Figure 7.21 Corrosion behavior of mild steel in the flue duct during warm‐up fr...
22. Figure 7.22 Hanford probe (waste tank 241‐AN‐107) for monitoring in vapor and l...
23. Figure 7.23 EN record (a) prior to water addition in November 1997 and (b) afte...
24. Figure 7.24 EN probe made of structural material of Indian nuclear reprocessing...
25. Figure 7.25 EN time record for 304L SS taken after 85 h of immersion of (a) sol...
26. Figure 7.26 EN time record for solution‐annealed 304L SS in (a) 3 M nitric acid...
27. Figure 7.27 R_n–time plots for solution‐annealed 304L SS in 3 M nitric acid and ...
28. Figure 7.28 (a) EN setup. (b) Coupling current and potentials of sensitized 304...
29. Figure 7.29 Schematic of pressure tube with EN sensor.
30. Figure 7.30 Potential noise behavior at different stress levels ks: (a) 0.9 < k...
31. Figure 7.31 Schematic of the experimental setup for EPN and DCPD measurements w...
32. Figure 7.32 (a) Mean values of EPN and crack advance measured by DCPD in a comb...
33. Figure 7.33 Mean values of EPN and crack advance measured by DCPD in a combined...
34. Figure 7.34 Online EN probe in an adsorption heat pump/transformer.
35. Figure 7.35 Localization index (LI) monitored as a function of temperature.
36. Figure 7.36 Variation of electrochemical parameters (EN and LPR) as a function ...
Chapter 8
1. Figure 8.1 Various parameters of acoustic emission signals.
2. Figure 8.2 Frequency spectrum of signal during (a) pre‐breakaway, (b) breakaway...
3. Figure 8.3 Schematic diagram of (a) AE apparatus and (b) AE detector coupled to...
4. Figure 8.4 Weight change vs. time plots during air oxidation (700 °C) of low an...
5. Figure 8.5 AE count rate vs. time tracings during air oxidation (at 700 °C) of ...
6. Figure 8.6 Cumulative amplitude distribution plot for 9Cr–1Mo steel subjected t...
Chapter 9
1. Figure 9.1 Ultrasound range diagram.
2. Figure 9.2 Replica images by optical microscope (×100). Carbon steel heat excha...
3. Figure 9.3 Various coupons with retractable holders (a) for corrosion examinati...
4. Figure 9.4 Bypass piping assemblies (a) and coupons (b) installed inside water ...
5. Figure 9.5 Various coupon forms for the examination of different corrosion phen...
6. Figure 9.6 Piece of a conducting material (metal) and the operating principle o...
7. Figure 9.7 Various types of the ER sensing elements.
8. Figure 9.8 Portable device (a) and a transmitter connected to a distributed con...
9. Figure 9.9 ER measured in the corroded thickness of an ER probe versus time. CR...
10. Figure 9.10 Special metallic coupons with holes (a), Ni–Cr screen gauze (b), an...
11. Figure 9.11 Heat transfer resistance (HTR) vs. time (cooling water system).
12. Figure 9.12 Polarization curves (Evans diagram) and Tafel extrapolation for cor...
13. Figure 9.13 Linear polarization resistance probe with replaceable electrodes.
14. Figure 9.14 Electrical potential versus electrical current between two similar ...
15. Figure 9.15 Correct installation of the LPR electrodes.
16. Figure 9.16 Pitting tendency of heated carbon steel surface vs time in cooling ...
17. Figure 9.17 Scheme of the FSM technique. (a) No corrosion. (b) Corrosion occurs...

Copyright © 2019 by The American Ceramic Society. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada.

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Singh, Raman, 1959– editor.
Title: Non‐Destructive evaluation of corrosion and corrosion‐assisted cracking / edited by Raman Singh, Baldev Raj, U. Kamachi Mudali, Prabhakar Singh.
Description: Hoboken : Wiley‐American Ceramic Society, 2019. | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Description based on print version record and CIP data provided by publisher; resource not viewed.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018036498 (print) | LCCN 2018038143 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119428619 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781119428534 (ePub) | ISBN 9781118350058 (hardcover)
Subjects: LCSH: Corrosion and anti‐corrosives–Testing. | Fracture mechanics. | Nondestructive testing.
Classification: LCC TA462 (ebook) | LCC TA462 .N586 2019 (print) | DDC 620.1/1223–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018036498

Cover Design: Wiley
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Foreword

Corrosion represents an enormous challenge across all industries and commences and even impacts each one of us in our daily lives. For example, the corrosive degradation of artificial hips and knees, as we are now experiencing, is causing the replacement of many implants because of the toxicity of the corrosion products toward human tissue. This alone will cost the medical system in the United States many billions of dollars by the time that the problem is corrected. I could cite many other examples, including repair and replacement of infrastructure (roads, bridges, and building, because these structures have been compromised by chloride‐induced rebar corrosion, particularly in the northeast and in mountain regions of the country). The cause of the problem has been traced to the use of road salts and/or the use of calcium chloride as a “setting agent” when pouring concrete in freezing weather. This is a good example of an “unintended consequence.” While the causes of such corrosion maladies are well known and have been well articulated, the first line of defense is to detect and characterize the developing corrosion damage without compromising the performance of the system itself. This is done through “nondestructive testing (NDT),” which is the subject of this outstanding book. Finally, the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM E1316, “Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations”) defines nondestructive examination (NDE) as the development and application of technical methods to examine materials or components in ways that do not impair future usefulness and serviceability in order to detect, locate, measure, and evaluate flaws. The reader will note that the definition is comprehensive in that it is just not detection that is at issue but it is also characterization of the damage that is important.

The book begins with an overview of NDT by the editorial team led by Professor Raman Singh, which is both comprehensive and informative. Importantly, this overview makes the case and paves the way for subsequent chapters. As noted by the editor, NDT or nondestructive evaluation (NDE) techniques are therefore essential for the early and accurate detection of corrosion and corrosion‐induced damage, including general, pitting, and crevice corrosion and of hydrogen embrittlement, stress corrosion cracking, and corrosion fatigue in systems under active mechanical loading. Thus, the first chapter of this book articulates the principles of key NDE techniques and identifies which techniques are particularly suitable for detecting corrosion and corrosion‐assisted cracking. This is followed by a chapter on different forms of corrosion as well as brief descriptions of their underlying mechanisms. After the two introductory chapters on NDE and corrosion, the following two present case studies on applications of NDE techniques for online corrosion detection and monitoring in critical applications, e.g. nuclear power plants. Subsequent chapters describe specific NDE techniques, such as electrochemical impendence spectroscopy (EIS), electrochemical noise analysis (ENA), acoustic emission (AE), and thermography (T). Importantly, these chapters describe in detail the application of the various techniques in detecting corrosion in specific industries (e.g. aerospace and transportation) or specific corrosion phenomenon (such as corrosion scale cracking and spallation), again with the support of case studies. The final chapter is dedicated to NDE for online corrosion monitoring.

Inspection is also an integral part of NDT or NDE and includes visual testing (VT), liquid penetrant testing (LPT), magnetic particle testing (MPT), eddy current testing (ECT), and in situ metallography (ISM). Inspection techniques can be divided into surface examination, volumetric examination methods, and performance testing. Thus, VT, LPT, and ISM are examples of surface inspection methods, while MPT, ECT, radiography testing (RT), and ultrasonic testing (UT) are examples of volumetric examination techniques. Performance tests include leak testing (LT) and acoustic emission testing (AET). These techniques are vital for the in situ characterization of the extent of damage.

The material contained in this book on EIS and ENA are close to my heart, as I have used both to detect and characterize numerous corrosion systems. Thus, EIS, which has been applied to a variety of corrosion systems, is a perturbation/response technique that is based on linear systems theory (LST) for which a firm and broad mathematical basis exists. Its principal advantages are that it is a steady‐state technique, it can be applied over a very wide frequency range, and it transfers an enormous amount of information to the observer. Its principal disadvantage is that in order to take full advantage of EIS, it is necessary to possess mathematical skills. Thus, while most EIS studies end in characterizing a “equivalent electrical circuit (EEC),” its real power lies in reaction mechanism analysis (RMA). In RMA one seeks to define reaction mechanisms in terms of charge transfer and coupled chemical reactions. Fortunately, a number of excellent textbooks exist on EIS that describe in detail how RMA is affected. The application of EIS in the analysis of organic coatings, passive films, anodic oxide films, localized corrosion, atmospheric corrosion, fouling, and concrete structures is reviewed in the book.

ENA is related to EIS (in fact the impedance of a system can be determined from the natural fluctuations in potential and current) but is non‐perturbative in nature. Potential and current fluctuations emanating from corroding surfaces carry information about the type of corrosion process and the corrosion rate, but its extraction requires a mathematical skill level that, like EIS, is usually above that possessed by corrosion scientists and specialists in NDE. Because it is non‐perturbative, ENA is the corrosionist’s stethoscope. Just like a physician useful information requires a skill level that can prize the information from the recorded noise, as noted above. This information can only be extracted by using sophisticated data analysis techniques, such as wavelet analysis (WA), maximum entropy analysis (MEA), and power spectral density analysis (PSDA). Although the fluctuations in current and potential are often stated to be random (stochastic), the noise is actually deterministic in nature because they arise from processes occurring on the metal surface and are interrelated by the impedance.

The material contained in this book is directly related to the risk equation, R = P × C, where P is the probability that an event (e.g. SCC) will occur and C are the consequences. NDE primarily articulates P. The consequences, C, however, are often imposed legislatively, such as in the case of spillage from a pipeline. However, it is their coupling that defines the risk, R. Thus, the consequences for the environment on rupture of a water pipeline are generally small (and maybe even beneficial in some respects), whereas spillage from an oil pipeline can and usually does have severe consequences. Thus management of risk is usually accomplished by controlling P. It is therefore obvious that NDE is a vital part of controlling risk.

Although the benefits of NDE are clearly apparent, there does not currently exist a comprehensive book on the principles underlying NDE or their application in specific industrial systems. This book goes a long way to fulfilling that need, in spite of the fact that it focuses on environmentally induced damages (corrosion). As such, the book represents a considerable resource in detecting and characterizing corrosion across industries ranging from rail infrastructure, offshore petroleum production, and power generation to aging aircraft. I therefore rate this book to be a “must” for anyone who is involved in NDE.

Digby Macdonald

FRSC, FRSNZ, FNACE, FECS, FISE, FIC, FASM, FWIC
Khwarizmi Laureate in Fundamental science, Doctuer Honoris Causa‐INSA Lyon, Faraday Memorial Trust Gold Medalist, Gibbs Award Recipient (IAPWS), De Tao Master, Frumkin Medalist, OLIN Palladium Medalist

Professor in Residence, Departments of Nuclear Engineering and Materials Science and Engineering, University of California at Berkeley.
Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Materials Science and Engineering, Penn State University

Preface

Corrosion of engineering alloys and the mitigation measures continue to cost dearly (1–4% of GDP of any developed economy, which translates to an annual loss of ~$250 billion to the United States). The problem of corrosion is endemic to a large cross section of industries and affects our daily lives. For example, in the United States, there are more trips per day over structurally deficient bridges than there are McDonald’s hamburgers eaten in the entire United States [1]. The significance of corrosion is further illustrated by the June 2007 Report to Congress by the Under Secretary of the Department of Defense (DoD) (Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics) [2]. This report estimated the cost of corrosion associated with US DoD systems alone to be between US$10 billion and US$20 billion annually.

Traditional approaches such as use of corrosion resistance alloys and coatings have brought significant mitigation of the age‐old problem of corrosion. However, a durable corrosion resistance is still a nontrivial challenge in some critical applications, where aggressive corrosive solutions are handled (e.g. concentrated chloride solutions in desalination plants) or where corrosion resistance is required for very long durations (e.g. nuclear waste containers) or where corrosion can cause serious health problems (such as degradation of human implants). It will be socially fulfilling as well as commercially attractive to completely circumvent corrosion, which is often prohibitively challenging. This challenge emphasizes the need of an early and accurate detection and assessment of corrosion that are crucial for timely mitigation/repair.

Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) techniques are, therefore, invaluable for an early and accurate detection of corrosion and corrosion‐assisted cracking. To this end, the first chapter of this book describes principles of key NDE techniques, with elaborations of those techniques that are particularly suitable for detection of corrosion and corrosion‐assisted cracking. This is followed by a chapter on different forms of corrosion as well as brief descriptions of their underlying mechanisms.

On the solid footings of the two introductory chapters on NDE and corrosion, the following two chapters present case studies on applications of NDE techniques for detection and online monitoring of corrosion in some critical applications (such as nuclear power plants). Subsequent chapters present specific NDE techniques (viz. thermography, electrochemical impendence spectroscopy, electrochemical noise, acoustic emission) and their applications in detection of corrosion in specific industry (such as aerospace) or specific corrosion phenomenon (such as corrosion scale cracking and spallation), again with the support of case studies. The final chapter is dedicated to NDE for online corrosion monitoring.

The magnitude of losses and risks caused by corrosion is immense. Though it is invaluable to accomplish early detection of corrosion by NDE, there seems to be no resource/book on the topic of NDE of corrosion and corrosion‐assisted cracking. As such this is a maiden attempt to accomplish a formidable resource on NDE of corrosion across industries that range from rail infrastructure, offshore, and power generation to aging aircraft. Editorial team is grateful to the true international experts from each of the component areas on the topic of the application of NDE to corrosion, who have contributed to this book.

References

1 Davis, S.L., DeGood, K., Donohue, N., and Goldberg, D. (2013). The Fix We’re in For: The State of Our Nation’s Busiest Bridges. Transportation for America. http://t4america.org/docs/bridgereport2013/2013BridgeReport.pdf (accessed 3August 2016).
2 Efforts to Reduce Corrosion on the Military Equipment and Infrastructure of the Department of Defense. (2007). Department of Defense Report (June). Office of the Secretary of Defense, USA.

Professor Raman Singh
Dr. Baldev Raj
Dr. U. Kamachi Mudali
Professor Prabhakar Singh

Non‐Destructive Evaluation of Corrosion and Corrosion‐assisted Cracking

Dedication

List of Contributors

Foreword

Preface

References